Understanding psychology 13 edition feldman pdf download

Understanding Psychology Author : Robert S. Essentials of Understanding Psychology is written around the philosophy that an effective textbook must be oriented to students: informing them, engaging them, exciting them about the field, and expanding their intellectual capabilities because when students understand psychology, they learn psychology. No matter what brings students into the introductory course and regardless of their initial motivation, Essentials of Understanding Psychology, Seventh Edition, draws students into the field and stimulates their thinking.

This revision integrates a variety of elements that foster students' understanding of psychology and its impact on their everyday lives. It also provides instructors with a fully integrated supplements package to objectively gauge their students' mastery of psychology's key principles and concepts and to create dynamic lectures. Hence, this volume has a unique status in the history of self psychology: it bears the imprint of Kohut while charting a course of theoretical and clinical growth in the post-Kohut era.

Shane, P. Tolpin, Brandchaft, Oremland are juxtaposed with a section of self-psychological reassessments of interpretations Basch, A. Ornstein, Goldberg. Clinical papers cover the selfobject transferences Hall, Shapiro , patient compliance Wolfe , and the "self-pity response" Wilson , while theoretical contributions present ideas of Stolorow, Bacal, White, and Detrick that are foundational to their subsequent writings.

This volume helped to shape the theoretical and clinical agenda of self psychology in the decades following Kohut's death. Understanding the Psychology of Diversity Author : B.

By exploring how individuals construct their view of social diversity and how they are defined and influenced by it, author B. Similarly, Facebook are examined to test a hypothesis. Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis because someone else has already collected the basic data. Of course, the use of existing data has several drawbacks. For one thing, the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully.

The information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly Riniolo et al. Most attempts at archival research are hampered by the simple fact that records with the necessary information often do not exist. In these instances, researchers often turn to another research method: naturalistic observation.

For example, a researcher inves- which an investigator simply observes tigating helping behavior might observe the kind of help given to victims in a high- some naturally occurring behavior and crime area of a city. The important point to remember about naturalistic observation does not make a change in the situation. Andrea Turkalo, a pioneer in the study of forest elephants in their native habitat, relies on naturalistic observation for her research.

What are the advantages of this approach? For example, we might find so few naturally occurring instances of helping behavior that we would be unable to draw any conclusions.

Because naturalistic observation prevents researchers from making changes in a situation, they must wait until the appropriate conditions occur. Further- more, if people know they are being watched, they may alter their reactions and produce behavior that is not truly representative.

Survey Research There is no more straightforward way of finding out what people think, feel, and do than asking them directly. For this reason, surveys are an important research method.

Researchers investigating helping behavior might conduct a survey by asking peo- ple to complete a questionnaire in which they indicate their reluctance for giving aid to someone.

Similarly, researchers interested in learning about sexual practices have carried out surveys to learn which practices are common and which are not and to PsychTech chart changing notions of sexual morality over the last several decades Reece et al. For one thing, if the sample via the web. But web of people who are surveyed is not representative of the broader population of interest, surveys may have sampling the results of the survey will have little meaning. For instance, if a sample of voters problems, given that not in a town only includes Republicans, it would hardly be useful for predicting the everyone has easy access results of an election in which both Republicans and Democrats are voting.

Conse- to the web, such as people quently, researchers using surveys strive to obtain a random sample of the population living in poverty. Conse- in question, in which every voter in the town has an equal chance of being included quently, web surveys may in the sample receiving the survey Davern, ; Engel et al. Most racists know they are racists and might not want to admit it. Furthermore, people may not want to admit they engage in behaviors that they feel are somehow abnormal—a problem that plagues surveys of sexual behavior, because people are often reluctant to admit what they really do in private.

Finally, in some cases, people may not even be consciously aware of what their true attitudes are or why they hold them. To answer this question, psychologists might conduct a case study. Module 5 to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group Gass et al. When case studies are used as a research technique, the goal is to use the insights gained from the study of a few individuals to improve our understanding of people in general.

Sigmund Freud developed his theories through case studies of individual patients. Similarly, case studies of terrorists might help identify others who are prone to violence. The drawback to case studies? If the individuals examined are unique in certain ways, it is impossible to make valid generalizations to a larger population.

Still, they sometimes lead the way to new theories and treatments for psychological disorders. Correlational Research In using the descriptive research methods we have discussed, researchers often wish to determine the relationship between two variables.

For example, in a study characteristics that can change, or vary, to determine whether the amount of studying makes a difference in test scores, the in some way. Module 5 variables would be study time and test scores. A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase.

In contrast, a negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases. For instance, we might predict that as the number of hours spent studying increases, the number of hours spent partying decreases. More studying is associated with less partying, and less studying is associated with more partying. For instance, we would probably not expect to find a relationship between number of study hours and height.

Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a correlation close to 0. When two variables are strongly correlated with each other, we are tempted to Study Alert assume that one variable causes the other.

Although this is not a bad guess, it remains just a guess—because finding that key principle. The strong correlation suggests that knowing how much a person studies can help us predict how that person will do on a test, but it does not mean that the studying causes the test performance. Instead, for instance, people who are more inter- ested in the subject matter might study more than do those who are less interested, and so the amount of interest, not the number of hours spent studying, would predict test performance.

The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one causes the other. Similarly, suppose you learned that the number of houses of worship in a large sample of cities was positively correlated with the number of people arrested, mean- ing that the more houses of worship, the more arrests there were in a city.

Does this mean that the presence of more houses of worship caused the greater number of arrests? Almost surely not, of course. In this case, the underlying cause is proba- bly the size of the city: in bigger cities, there are both more houses of worship and more arrests. One more example illustrates the critical point that correlations tell us nothing about cause and effect but only provide a measure of the strength of a relationship between two variables.

We might find that children who watch a lot of television programs featuring high levels of aggression are likely to demonstrate a relatively high degree of aggressive behavior and that those who watch few television shows that portray aggression are apt to exhibit a relatively low degree of such behavior see Figure 1.

But we cannot say that the aggression is caused by the TV viewing, because many other explanations are possible. For instance, it could be that children who have an unusually high level of energy seek out programs with aggressive content and are more aggressive. Can we con- sion.

Also, people who are already highly aggressive might choose to watch shows with clude that the observations of violence a high aggressive content because they are aggressive.

Clearly, then, any number of cause aggression? For example, a choosing to watch shows with aggressive content a could produce aggression; or b being a highly aggressive person might cause Choosing to watch one to choose to watch televised aggres- High viewer television programs sion; or c having a high energy level aggression with high aggressive might cause a person to both choose to content watch aggressive shows and to act aggressively.

Correlational findings, then, b do not permit us to determine causality. Can you think of a way to study the effects High viewer of televised aggression on aggressive aggression behavior that is not correlational? Unusually high energy level Choosing to watch television programs c with high aggressive content.

The inability of correlational research to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships is a crucial drawback to its use. There is, however, an alternative technique that does establish causality: the experiment. Experimental Research Carrying out experiments is the only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Module 5 The change that the researcher deliberately makes in an experiment is called the experimental manipulation. Module 5 begins with the development of one or more hypotheses for the experiment to test. They then designed an experiment to test this hypothesis. Their first step was to formulate an operational definition of the hypothesis by conceptualizing it in a way that could be tested.

However, the manipulation cannot be viewed by itself, in isolation; if a cause-and-effect relationship is to be established, the effects of the manipulation must be compared with the effects of no manipulation or a different kind of manipulation. One group will receive some special treatment—the manipulation implemented mented by the experimenter. Module 5 by the experimenter—and another group will receive either no treatment or a differ- ent treatment.

Module 5 with another group. Module 5 ulation produced the results observed in the experiment. For example, consider a medical researcher who thinks he has invented a medicine that cures the common cold. To test his claim, he gives the medicine one day to a group of 20 people who have colds and finds that 10 days later all of them are cured.

Not so fast. An observer viewing this flawed study might reasonably argue that the people would have gotten better even without the medicine. Only if there is a significant difference between experimental and control groups can the effectiveness of the medicine be assessed.

Through the use of control groups, then, researchers can isolate specific causes for their findings—and draw cause-and-effect inferences. To do this, they decided to create a false emer- gency situation that would appear to require the aid of a bystander. As their experimental manipulation, they decided to vary the number of bystanders present.

They could have had just one experimental group with, say, two people present, and a control group for comparison purposes with just one person present. The independent variable is the condition that is manipulated by an experimenter. You can think of the independent variable Module 5 as being independent of the actions of those taking part in an experiment; it is con- trolled by the experimenter.

The next step was to decide how they were going to determine the effect that varying the number of bystanders had on behavior of those in the experiment. The dependent variable is the vari- that is measured in an experiment. It is able that is measured in a study. Module 5 part in the experiment. But the investigators also wanted a more precise analysis of helping behavior. Consequently, they also measured the amount of time it took for a participant to provide help. The independent variable, manipulated by them, was the number of bystanders present in an emergency situation.

The dependent variable was the measure of whether bystand- ers in each of the groups provided help and the amount of time it took them to do so. Consequently, like all experiments, this one had both an independent variable and a dependent variable. All true experiments in psychology fit this straightforward model. The significance of this step becomes clear when we examine various alternative Study Alert procedures.

For example, the experimenters might have assigned just males to the group To remember the difference with two bystanders, just females to the group with three bystanders, and both males between dependent and and females to the group with six bystanders. If they had done this, however, any independent variables, recall that differences they found in helping behavior could not be attributed with any certainty a hypothesis predicts how a solely to group size, because the differences might just as well have been due to the dependent variable depends on composition of the group.

A more reasonable procedure would be to ensure that each the manipulation of the indepen- group had the same composition in terms of gender; then the researchers would be dent variable.

Participants in each of the experimental groups ought to be comparable, and it is easy enough to create groups that are similar in terms of gender. The problem becomes a bit more tricky, though, when we consider other participant characteristics.

How can we ensure that participants in each experimental group will be equally intelligent, extroverted, cooperative, and so forth, when the list of characteristics—any one of which could be important—is potentially endless? The advantage of this technique is that and chance alone.

Module 5 there is an equal chance that participant characteristics will be distributed across the various groups. When a researcher uses random assignment—which in practice is usually carried out using computer-generated random numbers—chances are that each of the groups will have approximately the same proportion of intelligent people, cooperative people, extroverted people, males and females, and so on.

Figure 2 provides another example of an experiment. Only if each of these elements is present can a research study be considered a true experiment in which cause-and-effect relationships can be determined. Group 1: Treatment group. Receive-drug condition Group 2: Control group. The participants in the experiment were monkeys who were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Monkeys assigned to the treatment group were given propranolol, hypothesized to prevent heart disease, whereas those in the control group were not given the drug.

Administration of the drugs, then, was the independent variable. These measures constituted the dependent variable. The results? As hypothesized, monkeys who received the drug showed lower heart rates and fewer symptoms of heart disease than those who did not.

The discussion was to be held over an intercom, supposedly to avoid the potential embarrassment of face-to-face contact. Chatting about personal problems was not, of course, the true purpose of the experi- ment, but telling the participants that it was provided a way of keeping their expec- tations from biasing their behavior. Consider how they would have been affected if they had been told that their helping behavior in emergencies was being tested.

The experimenters could never have gotten an accurate assessment of what the participants would actually do in an emergency. By definition, emergencies are rarely announced in advance. The sizes of the discussion groups were two, three, and six people, which consti- tuted the manipulation of the independent variable of group size. Participants were randomly assigned to these groups upon their arrival at the laboratory.

Each group included one trained confederate of the experimenters. A confederate is an actor employed by a researcher who participates in a psychological experiment, pretending to be a participant. The researcher trains the confederate to act in a particular way during the experiment.

The confederate then called confirmed their hypotheses. Module 5 for help. As predicted by the hypothesis, the size of the group 60 helping had a significant effect on whether a participant provided help. Because these results are straightforward, it seems clear 30 that the experiment confirmed the original hypothesis.

A significant outcome indicates that the findings are 2 3 6 statistically meaningful, making it possible for researchers to Size of group feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses.

Thus the research- One important question about the ers clearly established that the bystander bystander effect is its generalizability—that effect does occur even in children as young is, how widespread is it? Does it happen in as five. In a clever twist, countries? Does it happen whether the the researchers added a third condition. Researchers answer condition were coloring with bystanders bullied, do they intervene or does the these questions by studying the phenome- who were seated at school desks just like bystander effect occur?

But the other half of the partici- effect in children, researchers examined a who was working on her own art project. There was good rea- The adult then spilled a cup of water all coloring with bystanders who were tempo- son to think they might not exhibit over a table and struggled for 90 seconds to rarily trapped at their own desks by a par- bystander effects, because previous hold it back from spilling off the edges, ini- tition placed in the way by the adult.

Thus research had established that children at tially hinting and then eventually asking they were present but unable to help, and this age are often eager to be helpful, even for someone to help her by bringing her only the participant was able to help. In when it comes at a cost to themselves. Half of the participants was causing the bystander effect in these children. In all. Consequently, we can say with some confidence that group size caused changes in the degree of helping behavior.

Psychologists—like other scientists—require that findings dures, settings, and groups of partici- be replicated, or repeated, sometimes using other procedures, in other settings, with pants, to increase confidence in prior other groups of participants, before full confidence can be placed in the results of any findings. Module 5 single experiment. Furthermore, a procedure called meta-analysis permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall con- clusion Liu et al.

Replication is a critical activity, and many researchers believe that psychologists need to increase the number of studies that are replications of earlier research in order to have greater confidence in their findings. In addition to replicating experimental results, psychologists need to test the lim- itations of their theories and hypotheses to determine under which specific circum- stances they do and do not apply.

It seems unlikely, for instance, that increasing the number of bystanders always results in less helping. In fact, follow-up research shows that bystander intervention is more likely to occur in situations viewed as clear-cut and dangerous, because bystanders are more likely to perceive that the presence of others will provide resources for helping.

In short, it is critical to continue carrying out experiments to understand the conditions in which exceptions to this general rule occur and other circum- stances in which the rule holds Garcia et al.

The two psychologists began with a question of interest, in this case stemming from a real-world incident in which bystanders in an emergency did not offer help. They then formulated an explanation by specifying a theory of diffusion of responsibility, and from that formulated the specific hypothesis that increasing the number of bystanders in an emergency situ- ation would lower the degree of helping behavior. Finally, they carried out research to confirm their hypothesis, and they eventually communicated their findings by pub- lishing their results.

In naturalistic observation, the investigator variable and observing changes in the other variable. In survey research, people are pared to assess cause-and-effect relationships. The group asked a series of questions about their behavior, receiving the treatment the special procedure devised thoughts, or attitudes. The variable that they measure and performance are negatively correlated. Therefore, high expect to change as a result of manipulation of the in- anxiety must cause low performance.

A psychologist wants to study the effect of attractiveness randomly to treatment conditions, so that participant on willingness to help a person with a math problem. The group in an experiment that receives no treatment is research findings are significant.

Match the following forms of research to their definitions: Can you describe how a researcher might use naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research to investigate 1.

What positive and negative features does each 3. Poor performance may cause people to imply causation.

Just because two variables are related does not mean 1. Correlation does not 2. Match each of the following research methods with its primary disadvantage: 1. The researcher may not be able 2. The data may not exist or may be unusable. People may lie in order to present a good image. Psychologists must make choices about the type of study to conduct, the measures to take, and the most effective way to analyze the results. We front psychologists conducting turn first to the most fundamental of these issues: ethics.

How would you feel when you learned that the supposed essential, remember the key victim was in reality a paid accomplice? You might also experience concern that you had been placed in an embarrassing or compromising situation—one that might have dealt a blow to your self-esteem, depending on how you had behaved.

To avoid such outcomes, a small proportion of research involves deception. Nonetheless, because research has the potential to violate the rights of participants, psychologists are expected to adhere to a strict set of ethical guidelines aimed at protecting participants American Psychological Association, Module 6 Furthermore, after participation in a study, participants must be given a debriefing in which they receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved.

Although readily available and widely used as research subjects, college stu- dents may not represent the population at large. What are some advantages and drawbacks of using college students as subjects? Using col- lege students as participants has both advantages and drawbacks. The big benefit is that because most research occurs in university settings, college students are readily available.

Typically, they cost the researcher very little: They participate for either extra course credit or a relatively small payment. The problem is that college students may not represent the general population ade- quately. In fact, undergraduate research participants are typically a special group of people: relative to the general population, college students tend to be from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic cultures.

That description forms the acronym WEIRD, which led one researcher to apply the nickname to research participants Jones, ; Lancy, All these characteristics could be psychologically relevant. Because psychology is a science whose goal is to explain all human behavior gener- ally, its studies must use participants who are fully representative of the general population in terms of gender, age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and educational level see Neuroscience in Your Life.

However, our culture, our experiences, and our indi- vidual circumstances shape how our brains function and react to the world. For example, in these representational images we see how individuals raised in Eastern countries such as China and individuals raised in Western countries such as the U.

Cultural differences in human brain activity: A quantitative meta-analysis. Should Animals Be Used in Research? Like those who work with humans, researchers who use nonhuman animals in experi- ments have their own set of exacting guidelines to ensure that the animals do not suffer.

Specifically, researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain. Procedures that subject animals to distress are permitted only when an alter- native procedure is unavailable and when the research is justified by its prospective value. But why should animals be used for research in the first place? Is it really possible to learn about human behavior from the results of research employing rats, gerbils, and pigeons?

The answer is that psychological research that does employ nonhumans is designed to answer questions different from those posed in research with humans. For example, the shorter life span of animals rats live an average of 2 years allows researchers to learn about the effects of aging in a relatively short time frame. It is also possible to provide greater experimental control over nonhumans and to carry out procedures that might not be pos- sible with people.

For example, some studies require large num- bers of participants that share similar backgrounds or have been Research involving animals is controversial but, when conducted exposed to particular environments—conditions that could not within ethical guidelines, yields significant benefits for humans. Research with animals has provided psychologists with information that has pro- foundly benefited humans.

For instance, it furnished the keys to detecting eye disorders in children early enough to prevent permanent damage, to communicating more effec- tively with children with severe intellectual disability, and to reducing chronic pain in people.

Still, the use of research using nonhumans is controversial, involving complex moral and philosophical concerns. Module 6 One of the most common forms of experimenter bias relates to the unintentional transmission of expectations to participants by the experimenter, thereby affecting the results. When experimenter expectations occur, an experimenter unintentionally trans- mits cues to participants about the way the experimenter expects them to behave.

The danger is that those expectations actually cause the expected result to happen— results that otherwise might not have occurred Rosenthal, , Study Alert A related problem is participant expectations about appropriate behavior. If you have Learn the main types of potential ever been a participant in an experiment, you probably developed guesses about what bias in experiments: experimenter was expected of you.

In fact, participants often develop their own hypotheses about expectations, participant expecta- what the experimenter hopes to learn from the study. If participants form their own tions, and placebo effects. To guard against participant expectations biasing the results of an experiment, the experimenter may try to disguise the true purpose of the experiment.

Sometimes it is impossible to hide the actual purpose of research; when that is the case, other techniques are available to prevent bias. Suppose you were interested in testing the ability of a new drug to alleviate the symptoms of severe depression. If you simply gave the drug to half your participants and not to the other half, the par- ticipants who were given the drug might report feeling less depressed, merely because they knew they were getting a drug.

Similarly, the participants who got nothing might report feeling no better, because they knew that they were in a no-treatment control group. Because members of both groups are kept in the active ingredient. However, there is one more safeguard that a careful researcher must apply in an experiment such as this one. This method is known as the double-blind procedure.

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How does memory work? Who is the "distractor" in your family? What was the "car crash" experiment? The Psychology Book is your visual guide to the complex and fascinating world of human behavior. Discover how we learn, become emotionally bonded with others, and develop coping mechanisms to deal with adversity, or conform in a group. Get to know key thinkers, from Freud and Jung to Elizabeth Loftus and Melanie Klein, and follow charts and timelines to make sense of it all and see how one theory influenced another.